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The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1868,prohibits state governments from denying citizens the "equal protection of the laws." Although precisely what the framers of the amendment meant by this equal protection clause remains unclear, all interpreters agree that the framers' immediate objective was to provide a constitutional warrant for the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which guaranteed the citizenship of all persons born in the United States and subject to United States jurisdiction. This declaration, which was echoed in the text of the Fourteenth Amendment, was designed primarily to counter the Supreme Court's ruling in Dred Scott v.Sandford that Black people in the United States could be denied citizenship. The act was vetoed by President Andrew Johnson, who argued that the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, did not provide Congress with the authority to extend citizenship and equal protection to the freed slaves. Although Congress promptly overrode Johnson's veto,supporters of the act sought to ensure its constitutional foundations with the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment.The broad language of the amendment strongly suggests that its framers were proposing to write into the Constitution not a laundry list of specific civil rights but a principle of equal citizenship that forbids organized society from treating any individual as a member of an inferior class. Yet for the first eight decades of the amendment's existence, the Supreme Court's interpretation of the amendment betrayed this ideal of equality. In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, for example, the Court invented the "state action" limitation, which asserts that "private" decisions by owners of public accommodations and other commercial businesses to segregate their facilities are insulated from the reach of the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection under the law.
After the Second World War, a judicial climate more hospitable to equal protection claims culminated in the Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that racially segregated schools violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Two doctrines embraced by the Supreme Court during this period extended the amendment's reach. First, the Court required especially strict scrutiny of legislation that employed a "suspect classification," meaning discrimination against a group on grounds that could be construed as racial. This doctrine has broadened the application of the Fourteenth Amendment to other, nonracial forms of discrimination, for while some justices have refused to find, any legislative classification other than race to be constitutionally disfavored, most have been receptive to arguments that at least some nonracial discriminations. sexual Discrimination in particular, are "suspect" and deserve this heightened scrutiny by the courts. Second, the Court relaxed the state action limitation on the Fourteenth Amendment bringing new forms of private conduct within the amendment's reach.
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[阅读&逻辑 ]新版冲分救命题 -11894
Select the sentence that presents a conventional requirement that is rejected by the author of the passage.
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11861
Which of the following, if true of the cave, most weakens the argument?
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11860
It can be inferred that the “sediments
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11859
Which of the following best describes the issue raised by the question in the highlighted portion of the passage?
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11858
It can be inferred that which of the following is true of the “geologic evidence”?
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11857
Which of the following elements in the debate over the origin of Varanus is NOT provided in the passage?
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11856
It can be inferred from the passage that the geographical distribution of the Komodo dragon is
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11855
Which of the following, if discovered to be true, would most tend to suggest that the “correlation” mentioned in the passage held true for the people of the West Branch site?
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11854
The final sentence of the passage primarily serves to do which of the following?
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11853
The passage implies which of the following about beavers?
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11852
The passage provides support for which of the following statements about beaver dams?
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11851
According to the passage, which of the following best accounts for the apparent bias in antelope-migration direction?
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11850
The author of the passage implies that during the
[阅读&逻辑 ]精选题 -11849
According to the passage, which of the following is true of an Eurasia-Africa land bridge during ice ages?
[填空 ]精选题 -11843
The political upheaval caught most people by surprise: despite the ______ warning of some commentators, it had never seemed that imminent.
[填空 ]精选题 -11842
Even if the story now seems a surprisingly innocuous overture to the author’s later, more fully developed narrations, it ____ some of the key traits of those bleaker tales.
[填空 ]精选题 -11841
William Perkins, his ______ speaking style notwithstanding, has long been seen as the moderate face of his political party.
[填空 ]精选题 -11840
Just because, as a photographer, Friedlander (i)____ places that most people consider ugly does not mean that he is out to prove they are beautiful. Instead, his work suggests that the photographer simply cannot ignore so much of the built American landscape but is obligated to (ii)_____ what we pass through day in and day out, regardless of (iii)_____.
[填空 ]精选题 -11839
In the search for truth, the knowledge gained by scientists consists of approximations with varying degrees of certainty. Such (i)_____ truth can be highly (ii)_____, as the rapid and relatively steady progress of medical knowledge well exemplifies.
[填空 ]精选题 -11838
History teaches us that science is not _________ enterprise, indeed, it is quite the opposite, a motley assortment of tools designed to safeguard researchers against their own biases.
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